Flower buds of Epiphyllum species as food.

 I wanted to grow various Hylocereus for their valued edible unopened flowers (1) which are similar to Okra (2) but they are difficult to grow here in temperate Wellington, New Zealand. I managed to get one to survive the winter but it has not grown much at all. So I decided to try the related and similar Epiphyllum flower as a substitute since it grows easily outdoors here. The Cactus Cook Book (3) recommends Epiphyllum flower petals candied, although this is the only reference I could find to Epiphyllum flowers in general being edible aside from the well known use of opened Epiphyllum oxypetalum flowers in soups in Asia (4). 

So far I've tried unopened flower buds, including flower stems, of Epiphyllum cooperi and Epiphyllum ackermannii* (possibly actually Disocactus x hybridus which is often incorrectly called ackermannii in trade (5)). Both are bland in flavor, reasonably thick, firm, chewy and, like Hylocereus flowers (5), slightly mucilagenous when eaten raw. The flower base is rather like cucumber in texture but not as tasty. Cooked (as is recommended for Hylocereus) they are a bit tastier, like mild brussels sprouts, they become more mucilagenous the longer they are cooked, like Okra to which Hylocereus flowers are often likened. I haven't tried Hylocereus flowers so I don't know how similar they are but I find Epiphyllum a good addition to my edible garden because of their novel texture, ease of cultivation and epiphytic habit, occupying a niche that might not be otherwise used for food production. 

It looks like it may be best to stick to sampling Epiphyllum species only for food and not so called "Epiphyllum hybrids" which are not necessarily bred exclusively from Epiphyllum species despite the misleading name (7) (that would be any plant called "Epiphyllum" followed by a pretty name like "Starlight" or "Golden Beauty" rather than a species name). "Epiphyllum hybrids" may include Selenicereus parentage (7), the flowers of Selenicereus grandiflorus are unusual among cacti for being medicinal and toxic in excess (8). I don't know if it has been used in "Epiphyllum hybrids" but probably best to avoid them unless parentage is well established, they were bred for looking at not eating. 

It is however likely the reference to Epiphyllum flowers in general as edible in the Cactus Cook Book (2) is meant to include "Epiphyllum Hybrids" as it also recommends "any" cactus flower, they may be perfectly safe, I can find no record of any kind of Epiphyllum being toxic. 

If you're worried about unknown toxicity stick to Epiphyllum oxypetalum flowers as they have had widespread long-term use as food. 

1) Edible Medicinal and Non-medicinal Plants. Vol 7, Flowers, Page 45. T.K Lim.  2014.

2) https://www.iplantz.com/plant/1706/hylocereus-triangularis/

3) The Cactus Cook Book. Page 94. J L Tate. 1991.

3) Food Plants of China. Page 567. S Hu. 2005.

5) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disocactus_ackermannii

6) http://www.llifle.com/Encyclopedia/CACTI/Family/Cactaceae/7429/Hylocereus_undatus

7) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiphyllum_hybrid

8) Encyclopedia of Herbs & Their Uses. D Bown. 1995.

* There is an interesting and apparently unique reference to the Epiphyllum "Ackermanni Group", "mostly hybrids with a Nopalxochia" being grown in fields for their fruit in Mexico (Pg 57. Cactus Culture. Based on Biology. Franz Buxbaum 1958). 

 

Anti-stress may be anti-hierarchy

 "We now see that the process of rank allocation" (among primates) "especially dominance contests, encourage the upward movement of those group members most most able to withstand stress and best equipped to impose stress on others, while those with the most difficulty handling stress, or the least interested in stressing others, move downward. Thus there is a natural sorting that places individuals who are comfortable with stress near the top of the hierarchy and those who are "nervous" at the bottom".

-Allan Mazur. Biosociology of Dominance and Deference. Pg 87. 2005.

It is interesting that the relatively egalitarian Semai people of rainforest Malaysia have long viewed causing stress as a form of unacceptable violence (or at least they may be highly sensitive to stress). The violent effects of stress have much more recently been confirmed by modern science (Robert Dentan. Overwhelming Terror. Love, fear, peace and violence among Semai of Malaysia. Pg 138. 2008). 

It may be this "taboo" on causing stress partly explains the relative equality found in Semai society, hierarchy may simply, and unintentionally, be prevented from developing in the process of avoiding stress (Robert Dentan & David Nicholls. Stress, equality and peacability among east Semai. A preliminary account. Paper presented at Annual meeting of America Anthropological Association, Montreal, Nov 2011). Although multiple factors are probably involved in maintaining their equality, perhaps most notably they appear to "outsource" hierarchical roles such as "law and order" and "boss" to the supernatural (as reported in similar "egalitarian" societies by Kirk Endicott in Peaceful Foragers: The Significance of the Batek and Moriori for the question of Innate Human Violence. War, Peace and Human Nature. Ed D Fry. 2013.)

So if a group is trying to encourage equality, treating stress as acceptable or desirable will probably be counterproductive. If a group is seeking to establish hierarchy (to maximize efficiency in a division of labor for instance) restrictions or "taboos" on stress are likely to interfere. Presumably the middle path between these extremes would have the widest appeal. 

This could also have implications for health policy in modern states, it is conceivable hierarchy, including the state itself, could inadvertently be restricted or prohibited in efforts to eliminate illness and fatalities from stress. 

It is also interesting that the Semai have not traditionally damaged the ecosystem they live in significantly. Lack of ability to get stressed may be a cause of environmental devastation among industrialized people due to disregard for consequences, in effect a hierarchical attitude that we are above and disconnected from the rest of the biosphere. It may seem counter-intuitive but increasing sensitivity to stress in the general population (however, and if, that may be done) may actually make us stronger, more resilient in terms of our relationship with the rest of nature in addition to making society fairer. It may even be sustainability cannot be achieved any other way within the stark limits of human nature.   

  

Fruit Fly (Drosophila melanogaster) as Microlivestock

The Vinegar Fly or "Fruit Fly" (Drosophila melanogaster), that is a common "pest" in New Zealand kitchens (1) is farmed for food in Mexico (2). It is a potential edible microlivestock for those interested in food self-sufficiency outside Mexico. Insects in general are reportedly rich in fats, protein and carbohydrates (3). Before you say "yuk" take note it is eaten in Mexico, you could be accused of cultural insensitivity or worse if you say that.  

As an experiment I captured about a teaspoon full of these insects in my kitchen by leaving out a jar with some vinegar at the bottom for about a week (they were breeding in my worm farm which has since been moved outside, I've found they have continued to thrive in the worm farm, even through winter, outside). The insects are attracted to the vinegar and drown in it. I then separated the dead Vinegar Flies from the vinegar with a sieve and discarded the vinegar. I was concerned the vinegar still on the bugs could have "gone bad" over that week and might cause me to vomit, so I boiled the bugs for ten minutes in a soup to kill any germs. I was not sick after eating it. I could not taste or notice the bugs as I drank the soup, aside from being able to see them.

Despite being very small the Vinegar Fly may be one of the best edible microlivestocks anyone with only a small space such as a kitchen can farm, which admittedly isn't saying much, options this small seem to be quite limited. In most situations they would be more for providing essential nutrients than any kind of bulk to full you up. I have found no record of them spreading disease like houseflies and they are actually considered useful in spreading yeasts for making wine and cider (4). 

Scientists are experienced in deliberately raising Vinegar Fly for research purposes and information on how to do this is available online. It may even be possible to combine with recycling by deliberately raising the bugs in a worm farm, which also provides edible Tiger Worms (which I have also tried, they are not bad fried or roasted, after proper preparation (my blog post (5)). 

So next time someone says you've got a Fruit Fly infestation you can say "actually I'm a farmer".

References.

1 Bob Brockie https://www.stuff.co.nz/science/80883607/a-fruit-fly-or-two-is-behind-most-scientific-breakthroughs   2016.

2. Jun Mitsuhashi. Edible Insects of the World. 2017.

3. John Wiseman. SAS Survival Guide. 1999.

4. Andre Crowe. Which New Zealand Insect?  2002.

5. David Nicholls. Cooking Tiger Worms so not tough and rubbery. 2015.

https://www.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/2006780035499549072/1585908280519215466

 

Young Inflorescence of cabbage tree tasty

The peeled young inflorescence (flowering shoot) of Cordyline australis (white bit pictured above) is very good to eat in my experience, though I have not eaten a great number. It is similar to water chestnut in texture, somewhat nutty in taste and free of fibers. It is one of the more substantial and pleasing edible offerings of the New Zealand flora, for me a welcome break from the endless supply of introduced wild greens in NZ. 

This use is not listed anywhere in the literature of edible New Zealand native plants as far as I know. Perhaps this is because it is often out of reach, tending to be very high up on trees difficult or impossible to climb. Crowe (1) lists pretty much every other conceivable part of this plant as edible and no part of it has ever been listed as remotely toxic (2), so I feel very confident eating it.

I got the idea of eating it from the fact that the young peeled inflorescences of related and similar Yuccas, from the Americas, are edible (3).

For me this makes Cabbage Tree a much more realistic and reliable edible resource as the inflorescence is produced yearly (or at least biennially) and removing it does not really damage the plant (the inflorescence will die in a few months anyway (I suppose birds not being able to harvest the berries that would have followed might be a consideration.)) Other edible parts of this plant represent extremely low productivity in my experience and harvesting them damages or kills the tree. Still, accessing the inflorescence is a major problem, I wonder if the inflorescence is still produced if the plant is kept pruned to a practical height, otherwise reaching and grabbing equipment would usually be needed. The smaller species and varieties of Cordyline would also be worth investigating. 

Cabbage tree may be especially worth considering as a crop for sites with extreme coastal exposure where few edible plants thrive. The inflorescence is not produced in great abundance on trees that do not branch but on trees with many branches productivity is perhaps satisfactory.

It does not look like the chemical composition/nutritional value of cabbage tree inflorescence has been studied. I could only find one chemical analysis of the inflorescence of the related and similar Yucca, it contains crude protein and crude fat (4).   

1. Crowe, Andrew. A Field Guide to the Native Edible Plants of New Zealand. 1997.

2. (e.g., not in) Connor H.E. The Poisonous Plants in New Zealand. 1992.

3. Couplan, Francois. The Encyclopedia of Edible Plants of America. Nature's Green Feast. 1998.

4. Effects of replacement of alfalfa by inflorescences of Yucca carnerosana in the diet on performance of growing goats. M. Mellado et al. Livestock Science. July 2009.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S187114130800320X#:~:text=It%20was%20concluded%20that%2050,effects%20on%20their%20growth%20performance.

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Some other New Zealand native plants I sometimes eat that are not listed as edible in any book or anywhere else (so some caution advised):

Pyrrosia eleagnifolia. An epiphytic fern which is often abundant in improbable niches in older urban environments. The Fronds or "leaves" are eatable raw but very nice and crispy if fried very briefly, good as a snack. I feel fairly confident eating this as it has been claimed (the shoots of) all native ferns can be eaten (How to Survive in the Bush, on the Coast, in the Mountains of New Zealand. Fight Lieutenant B Hildreth. 1962). But more and more ferns are being found to be carcinogenic, the carcinogenicity of Pyrrosia eleagnifolia is not known. I only eat it occasionally and boil it for 20 minutes beforehand as this is done with potentially carcinogenic but popular Bracken fronds in Russia, apparently reducing or eliminating the danger. This plant does not seem to grow very quickly so harvesting it a lot is probably questionable.  

Hebe bud

Hebe salicifolia and similar species. The soft young leaf buds have been consumed raw for medicinal purposes (diarrhoea) in fairly large quantities at a time (Maori Healing and Herbal. M Riley 2010). I find them tasty with a pleasing texture boiled. Multiple leaf buds basically form a single unit before opening and separating so they are a bit more substantial and satisfying than a single leaf but not as much as asparagus, say. Hebe regrows fairly quickly after pruning so this seems to be a sustainable practice, though not especially productive.

Myrsine australis. The fruit is tiny but produced in bunches so a number can be collected with one gesture. The only interesting thing about them is the seeds have a pleasant crunch which could add interest to a dish. Some other Myrsine fruit are eaten overseas (Tanaka's Cyclopedia of Edible Plants of the World. 1976). 

Collospermum hastatum. The berries are known to be edible. I've also eaten the base of the young flower stem which is good, presumably much like the "bland and tender" base of the flower stem of the similar Astelia solandri eaten by Crowe (1.)

Arthropodium cirratum. The base of the flower stem is reasonably thick, palatable & seems harmless to me. The tender white leaf base also seems to be fine to eat though productivity is rather low as the plant grows fairly slowly. I also occasionally nibble the bland tasting flowers and young flower buds. The rhizomes have been reported to have been eaten by early Maori, at least partly because the plant was found around settlements (Crowe (quoting Colenso). Ref 1). I've found the rhizomes far too tough to eat so far, perhaps they need to be very young like some other rhizomes. I also can't find any first hand accounts of anyone eating them, I've even wondered if it was the above ground parts that were eaten in the past, rather than the rhizomes, though that seems unlikely. No part is not listed as toxic anywhere. It is commonly grazed by animals (9).

Tecomanthe speciosa. I have eaten the vaguely substantial & satisfying (solid) growing tip of this vine about 30 times, spaced over long periods, with no noticeable damage. It tastes much like the bitter edible leaves of Plantago major, complex in flavor but strangely, not bad. But the bitterness may indicate toxicity. Apparently goats ate/destroyed all but one of this species on its native island, found on a cliff this single plant is apparently the source of all plants found in cultivation. Goats eating a lot of something probably indicates it is not highly toxic but they sometimes safely consume mildly toxic species by eating a little at a time mixing it with more palatable species. They occasionally poison themselves.

Pittosporum crassifolium. Karo. I've tried eating the immature fruit before the seeds develop (mature fruit do not seem eatable). They seem to be edible raw but not very palatable and a bit tough. Boiled they are better, soft but a little dry in texture, with a slight resinous, musty, pea flavor, but mostly bland. Not bad, not great. Baked they are a bit too chewy and strong in flavor. They produce no unusual sensations in the mouth, I've swallowed about 20 at a time with no noticeable ill effects. Perhaps it has some culinary potential, could be added to stir fries maybe. The fact that the tree thrives in extreme coastal wind exposure may be a plus. 

There are no reports of toxicity in any Pittosporum that I can find though the leaves of this and other New Zealand Pittosporum tested contain saponins (5), the fruit do not seem to have been tested but may be the same. Saponins are not considered great to eat but are generally regarded as basically harmless to humans (toxic to fish, a Pittosporum has been used as a fish stupefier in the Islands (6) the fish then eaten). Saponins occur in a number of common foods. In experiments on rats large rations (60% of diet) of the leaves of the related Pittosporum tenuifolium resulted in weight loss, lower does there was weight gain (2). Presumably that means "everything in moderation". The gum of other New Zealand Pittosporums was eaten by Maori (1), the immature fruit of P. crassifolium has a similar taste to this gum. The bitter seeds of the Australian Pittosporum phylliraeoides have been made into flour and the gum has been eaten (7). The ripe fruit of Pittosporum viridiflorum is eaten raw in Africa (8).

 I have not tried the unripe fruit of other New Zealand Pittosporum yet, I expect they are the same.

Disclaimer: Although I have eaten all of the plants listed here in modest amounts with no noticeable ill effects, unknown toxicity is a possibility with any new food. Caution is advised. 

Also worth mentioning:

The unripe fruits of New Zealand flax (Phormium tenax, cookianuun) have a pleasant texture and taste boiled but are also extremely "hot", a bit like chili peppers. I've wondered if a similar taste could be acquired for this "heat" but I suspect it is too sharp and severe to have any culinary potential. I have only eaten a few. There is no record of any part of flax being toxic (2) aside from the purgative effect of the roots (1) but humans and animals may have never eaten much because of this heat so any toxicity may have never been detected (the heat in chili pepper is considered to be there to discourage consumption but it obviously didn't work with humans). 

Clianthus maximus/Clinathus puniceus. Kaka beak. There are a few people saying the pods are or may be edible online. Crowe (1) does not mention it as edible. The plant was only found around Maori settlements by early European settlers, not in the wild, suggesting they may have grown it for food, but it is also thought it may have just been an ornamental. Conner (2) says it is not suspected of being toxic. It is eagerly eaten by all sorts of animals.

I boiled and ate 3 pods of one of the Clianthus, not sure which, with no noticeable harm, they taste good, like peas or beans but most of the ones I tried had a few tough fibers that had to be removed from the mouth and thrown away, they were also a little dry, not great. It is possible the ones I tried were fibrous and dry because they were over-mature. It might be desirable as one of the few perennial legume crops if pods are better when young.

Refs

1. Crowe, Andrew. A Field Guide to the Native Edible Plants of New Zealand. 1997.

2. Connor H.E. The Poisonous Plants in New Zealand. 1992.

5.  A New Zealand Phytochemical Register -Part 1. S G  Brooker, R C Cambie. 1963. Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand. Vol 1. No 7.

6. BATIRI KEI BARAVI: THE ETHNOBOTANY OF PACIFIC ISLAND COASTAL PLANTS BY R R THAMAN. ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN NO. 361

7. Wild Food Plants of Australia. T. Low. 1991.

8. Ethno Botanical Study of Wild Edible Plants in Adola District, Southern, Ethiopia Sintayo Demise,  Zebene Asfaw. IJRAR May 2020, Volume 7, Issue 2

9. https://scd.landcareresearch.co.nz/Specimen/CHR%20567807

Some images from art book "Fight for Harmony" by David Nicholls

'Fight for Harmony' is a 70 page book of paintings in which a "heroine" fights to transform evil into good. The book is intended to offer a fantasy alternative to the traditional action hero who tends to shoot and kill evil. 

The "heroine" represents (the best of) human culture or civilization, "evil" consists of rampant base instincts. In the end, after a prolonged struggle to "heal" and "mature" evil, both good and evil make sacrifices and unite to form a harmonious whole. The freedom and unity a community can then enjoy is represented by numerous individual "parts" continuously rearranging to form a series of contrasting eco-communities.

The book was intended to be utter fantasy, something desirable but currently impossible. But since making the book I learned of mentalization therapy which is being used to treat anti-social personality disorder and narcissism, so maybe evil can be transformed into good. 

I also later read in a New York Times review of the book 'The Dawn of Everything' which claims "recent archaeological discoveries show that early humans, far from being blind automatons moving in evolutionary lock step in response to material pressures, self-consciously experimented with "a carnival parade of political forms" ". So perhaps a deliberately, continuously, self-transforming society is not impossible either. I am very skeptical of the influence rationality can have in successfully reshaping society, instincts, especially for domination, are in charge I think, currently at least, it's conceivable they weren't with "early humans".

Hedychium gardnerianum flower very tasty

Apparently only the huge B and T World Seeds list of edible flowers reports the glorious flowers of Hedychium gardnerianum as edible. They are one of the tastiest flowers I have ever eaten (though most edible flowers are quite bland). They taste rather like the related ginger as one might expect. They are a bit intense on their own but good added in moderation to stir-fry, soup or salad.

I also tried the peeled pith of young shoots and the pith of the base of mature stems, both are easily eaten and similar in flavor. I could not find any record of the stems or shoots being eaten by humans but the shoots of at least two other Hedychium are used as food, Hedychium coronarium(1) and Hedychium densiflorum (2). I have only tried the shoots of Hedychium coronarium which taste much the same, gingery. Since references to these two species being eaten in their native habitats are quite recent and rare it is possible Hedychium gardnerianum shoots are also eaten locally but this has just not entered the literature yet. 

I found Hedychium gardnerianum growing vigorously in quite a difficult spot at my place, on a steep bank under considerable (but not complete) shade of conifers and other trees. This plant is officially considered a weed here in New Zealand. Perhaps it deserves to be considered a national treasure not a pest. 

Refs

1. Edible Roots and Underground Stems of Ethnic India. S K Sood, Ved Prakash 2007.

2. ETHNOBOTANICAL STUDIES ON KHAMBA AND ADI TRIBES OF TUTING AREA, UPPER SIANG DISTRICT, ARUNACHAL PRADESH. L.R. Bhuyan*, Yapi Pangu, Ngilyang Tam. Bulletin of Arunachal Forest Research, Vol. 32 (1&2), 27-40: 2017